What are Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells?

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) are a type of fuel cell that use hydrogen as a fuel source to generate electrical power. In this article, we will discuss how PEMFCs work in combination with hydrogen to produce clean and efficient energy.

Overview of PEMFCs

PEMFCs are a type of electrochemical device that convert the chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen into electrical energy. They consist of several key components, including an anode, a cathode, and a proton exchange membrane (PEM).

The anode is the negative electrode, where hydrogen is oxidized to produce protons and electrons. The cathode is the positive electrode, where oxygen is reduced to form water. The PEM separates the anode and cathode compartments and allows only protons to pass through, creating a flow of electric current.

PEMFCs are known for their high efficiency, low operating temperature, and rapid start-up times. They are also lightweight and have a low profile, making them suitable for a wide range of applications, including transportation, portable electronics, and stationary power generation.

How PEMFCs Work with Hydrogen

PEMFCs operate by combining hydrogen and oxygen to produce electrical power. Here is a step-by-step breakdown of how PEMFCs work with hydrogen:

  1. Fuel Supply

Hydrogen fuel is supplied to the anode compartment of the fuel cell. The hydrogen can come from a variety of sources, including natural gas, methanol, or electrolysis of water.

  1. Anode Reaction

At the anode, the hydrogen molecules are split into protons and electrons in a process known as oxidation. The electrons are released and flow through an external circuit, producing electrical power. The protons are conducted through the PEM to the cathode compartment.

  1. Cathode Reaction

At the cathode, oxygen from the air is supplied and reduced to form water. This reaction consumes the protons and electrons from the anode reaction, completing the circuit.

  1. Electrical Power

The flow of electrons through the external circuit generates electrical power, which can be used to power a variety of devices and systems.

  1. Water Production

The only byproduct of the PEMFC reaction is water, which is produced at the cathode. The water can be collected and reused or released as waste.

Advantages of Using PEMFCs with Hydrogen

PEMFCs have several advantages when used with hydrogen as a fuel source. These include:

  1. Clean Energy

PEMFCs produce only water as a byproduct, making them a clean and environmentally friendly energy source. They do not produce greenhouse gases or harmful pollutants, making them an important technology for combating climate change and air pollution.

  1. High Efficiency

PEMFCs have high efficiency, meaning they convert a high percentage of the chemical energy of hydrogen into electrical power. This makes them a cost-effective and energy-efficient technology for a variety of applications.

  1. Low Operating Temperature

PEMFCs operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80°C, which allows for faster start-up times and greater efficiency. This also means that they do not require as much heat management as other types of fuel cells, making them a more practical and cost-effective technology for many applications.

  1. Versatility

PEMFCs are a versatile technology that can be used in a variety of applications, including transportation, portable electronics, and stationary power generation. Their lightweight and low profile make them suitable for a wide range of devices and systems.

Challenges and Future of PEMFCs with Hydrogen

Despite their many advantages, there are several challenges to the widespread adoption of PEMFCs with hydrogen. One challenge is the need for a reliable and efficient hydrogen storage and distribution infrastructure. Currently, hydrogen is mainly produced from

fossil fuels, such as natural gas, which limits the potential for hydrogen fuel cells to truly be a clean and sustainable energy source.

Another challenge is the cost of producing and maintaining PEMFCs. While the cost has decreased over time, it is still relatively high compared to other energy technologies. This limits the practicality and accessibility of PEMFCs for many applications.

Despite these challenges, the future of PEMFCs with hydrogen looks promising. Researchers and engineers are continually working to improve the efficiency and reliability of PEMFCs, as well as develop new technologies for hydrogen production and storage.

In addition, PEMFCs are already being used in a variety of applications, including powering electric vehicles and providing backup power for buildings. As the demand for clean energy continues to grow, PEMFCs with hydrogen are poised to become an increasingly important technology in the transition to a more sustainable future.

The Technology behind Toyota Mirai

The Toyota Mirai is a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle that was first introduced to the market in 2014. It is a groundbreaking car that has the potential to revolutionize the way we think about transportation, particularly in terms of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In this article, we will explore the technology behind the Toyota Mirai and how it works to provide a sustainable and efficient mode of transportation.

The Mirai’s powertrain is based on hydrogen fuel cell technology. It is powered by an electric motor that runs on electricity generated by a fuel cell stack, which combines hydrogen with oxygen from the air to produce electricity, heat, and water. This process, called electrochemical conversion, is the key to the Mirai’s efficiency and environmental friendliness.

One of the advantages of hydrogen fuel cell technology is that it produces zero emissions. The only byproduct of the electrochemical conversion process is water, which is released from the tailpipe as steam. This makes the Mirai an ideal choice for drivers who are concerned about reducing their carbon footprint and preserving the environment.

In addition to being emissions-free, the Toyota Mirai also offers several other benefits over traditional gasoline-powered vehicles. For one, it is much more efficient, with an estimated fuel economy of 67 miles per gallon equivalent (MPGe). This means that the Mirai can travel up to 312 miles on a single tank of hydrogen, which takes only about five minutes to refuel.

Another advantage of the Mirai’s fuel cell technology is its power output. The Mirai’s electric motor is capable of producing up to 153 horsepower and 247 lb-ft of torque, which gives the car a top speed of 111 mph. This makes it a practical choice for daily driving and longer trips alike.

Of course, there are also some challenges associated with hydrogen fuel cell technology, such as the availability of hydrogen refueling stations. However, as more car manufacturers invest in this technology and more stations are built, this is expected to become less of an issue over time.

What are Fuel Cells?

A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by using a chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidant. The most common types of fuel cells use hydrogen as a fuel and oxygen as an oxidant. In a hydrogen fuel cell, hydrogen gas is fed into the anode (negative electrode) of the cell, while oxygen gas is fed into the cathode (positive electrode) of the cell. The fuel and oxidant react in the presence of a catalyst, usually platinum, to produce electricity, water, and heat.

The chemical reaction that occurs in a hydrogen fuel cell is:

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O + energy

This reaction produces only water and heat, making fuel cells using hydrogen a clean and environmentally friendly source of energy.

Types of Fuel Cells

There are several different types of fuel cells, each with its own advantages and limitations. The most common types of fuel cells are:

  1. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs)

PEMFCs are the most widely used type of fuel cells. They are lightweight, have a high power density, and can start up quickly. PEMFCs use a polymer electrolyte membrane as the electrolyte, which allows for high efficiency and low operating temperatures. PEMFCs are used in a variety of applications, including vehicles, portable electronics, and backup power systems.

  1. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs)

SOFCs operate at high temperatures, typically between 800 and 1000 degrees Celsius. They use a solid ceramic electrolyte, which allows for high efficiency and low emissions. SOFCs are used primarily in stationary power generation applications, such as powering buildings and providing backup power for data centers.

  1. Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs)

DMFCs use methanol as the fuel instead of hydrogen. Methanol is easier to handle and transport than hydrogen, making DMFCs more practical for some applications. However, DMFCs have a lower power density than PEMFCs and require a higher amount of methanol to produce the same amount of energy.

Advantages of Fuel Cells Using Hydrogen

Fuel cells using hydrogen have several advantages over traditional energy sources, including:

  1. Clean and Environmentally Friendly

The only byproducts of the chemical reaction in a hydrogen fuel cell are water and heat. This makes fuel cells using hydrogen a clean and environmentally friendly source of energy.

  1. High Efficiency

Fuel cells using hydrogen are highly efficient, with an efficiency of up to 60%. This is much higher than traditional combustion engines, which have an efficiency of only around 20%.

  1. Versatile

Fuel cells using hydrogen can be used to power a wide range of devices, from small portable electronics to large vehicles and even entire buildings.

  1. Quiet and Vibration-Free

Fuel cells using hydrogen produce electricity without combustion, making them quiet and vibration-free.

Limitations of Fuel Cells Using Hydrogen

Fuel cells using hydrogen also have some limitations, including:

  1. Cost

Fuel cells using hydrogen are currently more expensive than traditional energy sources. However, as the technology improves and production scales up, costs are expected to come down.

  1. Fuel Storage and Transportation

Hydrogen gas is highly flammable and requires special storage and transportation methods. This can add to the cost and complexity of using fuel cells using hydrogen.

  1. Infrastructure

Fuel cells using hydrogen require a dedicated infrastructure for production, storage, and distribution. This infrastructure is not yet widely available, which limits the widespread adoption of fuel cells using hydrogen.

  1. Durability

Fuel cells using hydrogen have a limited lifespan, typically around 5-10 years. This is due to the degradation of the catalyst material over time.

Applications of Fuel Cells Using Hydrogen

Fuel cells using hydrogen have many potential applications, including:

  1. Transportation

Fuel cells using hydrogen can be used to power vehicles, including cars, buses, and trucks. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles have a longer range and shorter refueling time than battery-electric vehicles, making them a promising alternative to traditional gasoline and diesel vehicles.

  1. Portable Electronics

Fuel cells using hydrogen can be used to power small portable electronics, such as cell phones, laptops, and drones. Hydrogen fuel cells are lightweight and have a high energy density, making them a practical alternative to traditional batteries.

  1. Backup Power

Fuel cells using hydrogen can be used as backup power systems for buildings and data centers. Fuel cells can provide reliable backup power in the event of a power outage, and they do not produce emissions or noise.

  1. Stationary Power Generation

Fuel cells using hydrogen can be used for stationary power generation, such as powering buildings and providing electricity to remote areas. Fuel cells can be connected to the grid or operate independently, providing a clean and efficient source of electricity.

Is the Hydrogen Car Dead? Searching for A Criminal That Might Not Exist

It has been more than 50 years now since General Motors unveiled the first hydrogen car. An engine running entirely on clean energy? Even more, outputting drinkable water? A deal almost too good to be true. However, it is also too good to give up on easily. Still, in the last few years, electric vehicles (EVs) have taken the “green” market almost on its entire. So, who killed the hydrogen car?

Searching for clues

Some might say it was the overhype. Others consider the possibility of conspiracies featuring Eastern petrol moguls, whom are trying to keep oil as the main fuel source for vehicles. If that’s the case, the plan works wonderfully. According to The Guardian, 95% of today’s cars are running on fossil fuels. Put in perspective, if oil reserves would be depleted in a month, world economy would instantly crash and we would go back to medieval horse riding.

Still, there still are oil reserves. And given that oil price has constantly dropped since the summer of 2016, filling up your car’s tank doesn’t require a bank loan anymore. Unfortunately, fuel prices did not drop because we have magically come across undiscovered oil sources, but because of economic slow-down in Europe and China, combined with US shale oil avalanching the market.

Myth busted!

Conspiracy theories have almost always fallen to pieces when a deeper analysis was done, digging for facts. As of January 17th, 2017, major oil companies and big automakers have signed an agreement towards offering more support to the development of hydrogen vehicles. The target is to multiply the current global investment of just $2 billion a year, compared to hundreds of billions spent on oil.

The fact is, everybody knows oil reserves will soon be depleted. On the same hand, apart from some shady activists, all individuals are more or less aware of the environmental impact that burned hydrocarbons have.

But still, why hydrogen?

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles provide, at least in theory, a more than reasonable alternative. Fossil fuels are removed in their entire from the automotive process and only water gets out the exhaust pipe. Toyota Mirai was the first street legal hydrogen fuel cell vehicle to enter the US. Sadly, at $69.000 MRSP, it was hardly competitive. Not to mention that hydrogen refill stations are practically available only in California.

On the other hand, Battery Electric Vehicles seem the more reasonable, easier to implement option. This seems to be especially true with Plug-In EVs, which can be charged from a regular home power outlet. Independent survey by KPMG Global Automotive revealed that 2017 will keep electric vehicles trending high over hydrogen versions.

Arguments and predictions do however go head to head. About 75% of executives questioned by KPMG stated that, while BEVs are the eye-candy of the moment, hydrogen fuel cell technology will survive the test of time.

 

Where do you refill?

One of key points of FCVs (fuel cell vehicles) is the refill time. While battery electric cars take anywhere between 35 and 45 minutes, you can refill hydrogen as fast as you’d have with regular petrol or diesel – 5 minutes at most.

However, hydrogen refilling is also the nemesis. There are just 732 hydrogen charging stations around the world, compared to over 15.000 of electric stations just in US . Thus, hydrogen refill may be fast, but it’s difficult to find an actual station. And while it cost up to $2 million to establish a hydrogen station, electric charging zones have decreased in construction costs drastically.

All while providing multiple recharge points, extended mileage and tons of positive advertising from brands like Tesla, BEVs don’t seem to have gained an undefeatable lead, covering less than 5% of today’s car market.

Finally, is the hydrogen car actually dead? No.

We live in an era of trends: both positive and destructive. And, it is up to the end reader to sort throughout all the junk and find relevant information that is fully based on facts. The hydrogen car isn’t dead – globally speaking. Whether it is just a longer lasting trend, that is to be seen. However, for now there are plenty resourceful advocates giving hydrogen power bonus points and amazing concept cars.

Startup Nikola Motors has revealed a truck prototype showing the potential of hydrogen drives. Nikola One truck is promised to deliver up to 1,200 miles in one hydrogen fill. It’s not only able to go long, but also strong. Nikola One offers 1000hp and 2000 lb/ft of torque – going above high-end diesel engines.

Finally, given that Global Market for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles reports that, by 2020 there will be enough hydrogen filling infrastructure, it’s clear that we may soon witness FCVs passing along through traffic.

The hydrogen car isn’t dead. It just takes a little longer to develop, and in the end, its technology, along battery electric vehicles, will be forced towards consumers by depleting oil reserves.

Hver anden vil kun købe elbil, hvis afgifterne falder

Kun 4 % af danskerne vil købe en elbil, som deres næste bil. Elbiler er nemlig for dyre. Kun hvis afgifterne sænkes yderligere, vil hver anden købe elbil. Det viser en ny undersøgelse, som Kantar Gallup har lavet for Gjensidige Forsikring.

Hvilken type bil skal være din næste? Spørger man danskerne, er det benzin- og dieselbilen, der står højest på ønskelisten. Blot 4 % svarer, at de vil købe en elbil, som deres næste bil. Den er nemlig for dyr og har ikke stor nok rækkevidde.

Hver anden svarer dog, at lavere afgifter vil få dem til at skifte deres nuværende bil ud med en elbil.

”Det er en øjenåbner, at lavere afgifter og priser vil få flere til at udskifte deres nuværende bil med en elektrisk. Vores undersøgelse peger altså på, at det er helt afgørende, at afgifterne bliver sænket eller fjernet, så vi kan få flere elbiler ud på vejene. Jeg håber, at der fra politisk side er villighed til at gøre det mere økonomisk attraktivt at købe en mere miljøvenlig bil. Det bør i hvert fald være aktuelt, når nu flere partier kæmper om, hvem der er de mest grønne,” siger Henrik Sagild, skadedirektør i Gjensidige Forsikring.

Er der praktiske problemer med elbiler?

Mange danskere efterspørger el-biler til en lavere pris, men også rækkevidden, batteriets opladningshastighed og antallet af ladestationer er vigtige parametre, hvis den gamle bil skal opgraderes til en eldreven.

”Elbilen er som teknologi stadig ung, og de næste par år kommer til at byde på store fremskridt. Vi ser gradvist, hvordan rækkevidden bliver længere og batterierne bedre. Derfor er der lyse udsigter for en mere grøn dansk trafik, hvis blot danskerne udskifter de gamle biler med elbiler i takt med, at teknologien bliver endnu bedre,” siger Henrik Sagild.

Som benzin- og dieselbiler skal elbiler også forsikres gennem en lovpligtig bilforsikring med ansvarsforsikring.

I 2017 købte danskerne færre end 700 elbiler

Hele 43 % af det danske elforbrug var i 2017 dækket af vindenergi, og med fokus på at bygge nye, effektive vindmøller, vil dette tal sandsynligvis kun stige i fremtiden. Danmark har de bedste forudsætninger for at blive en af verdens grønne oaser, når det kommer til omstilling til miljøvenlig trafik.

Desværre har salget af elbiler stort set ikke udviklet sig siden 2015, og tilføjelsen af registreringsafgift har altså haft sin tydelige effekt på antallet af solgte elbiler. I dag er kun ca. 9.000 af de 2.5 mio. biler i Danmark elbiler.

”Danmark har tidligere været kendt som en grøn stormagt. Det håber jeg, at vi kan blive igen. Resultaterne i vores analyse viser meget tydeligt, at danskerne har gode hensigter, når det kommer til elbiler. Med lavere afgifter og yderligere teknologisk udvikling kan Danmark blive elbils-foregangsland, ligesom eksempelvis vores naboer mod Nord i Norge er blevet det,” siger Henrik Sagild.

Om undersøgelsen

Undersøgelsen er foretaget af Kantar Gallup for Gjensidige Forsikring blandt 1841 repræsentativt udvalgte danskere i februar 2018.

Hvilken type bil regner du med, bliver den næste du køber?

  • Benzinbil 33 %
  • Dieselbil 13 %
  • El-bil 4 %
  • Hybridbil 10 %
  • Regner ikke med at købe bil de næste mange år 30 %
  • Ved ikke 10 %

Hvorfor vil du ikke købe en el-bil?

  • Fordi den ikke kan køre langt nok på én opladning 27 %
  • Fordi den er for dyr 39 %
  • Jeg ser ikke el-biler som et reelt alternativ til benzin/dieselbiler 9 %
  • El-biler er ikke gode nok i forhold til benzin/dieselbiler 6 %
  • Af praktiske årsager der er andet end ovenstående 11 %
  • Andet, notér 17 %
  • Ved ikke 15 %

Hvad skal der til, for at du vil skifte din nuværende bil ud med en el-bil?

  • Lavere afgifter/pris 51 %
  • Større udvalg i el-biler 18 %
  • Større rækkevidde på en opladning 47 %
  • Hurtigere opladning af batteri 26 %
  • Bedre sikkerhed i el-biler 4 %
  • At der kommer flere ladestationer på de danske veje 31 %
  • Mere tydeligt bevis på at el-biler er bedre for miljøet 9 %
  • Når tiden er rigtig for at skifte min nuværende bil 16 %
  • Andet, notér 7 %
  • Jeg har allerede en el-bil 0 %
  • Ved ikke 16 %

Energy Efficiency in Hydrogen Based Vehicle Systems

The 21st century gave birth to a race all humankind takes part to. Like it or not, the reign of fossil fuel is about to end with a large bang. Engineers, scientists and pioneers of technology developed viable alternatives with two goals in mind:

  1. Provide a virtually non-depletable source of energy
  2. Make sure said-energy is clean, or at least cleaner than fossil fuel

Still, what’s wrong with fossil fuel, as long as there’s still some left? In short words, greenhouse emissions. On a worldwide scale, humanity is getting around 80% of the energy it requires by burning fuel, according to World Bank stats. While the percentage may have dropped since the 60s, the quantity of fuel burnt increased dramatically, thus raising the level of greenhouse emissions. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is the main element of the heat blocking blanket our Earth has been covered with and vehicles produce tons of it every single day. A study done by EPA shows 6,780 metric tons of CO2 have been released in the air in 2014.

How does hydrogen come into play?

Unlike conventional heat engines, eco-friendly machines can electrochemically transform hydrogen in usable electric energy. The energy resulted is used to power electric motors, for example in consumer vehicles.

The entire process is possible thanks to one or more fuel cells. A fuel cell uses a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) to harness electric power. The system is composed of a cathode and an anode sunk in an electrolyte, all covered on both ends by energy harnessing bipolar plates. In the anode, the hydrogen is separated into protons and electrons, while a membrane allows only protons to move further. In the meantime, electrons travel on a separate route towards the cathode, creating electricity through their movement. Once they return from the trip, hydrogen electrons react with oxygen and hydrogen protons, generating heat that can be further used by other systems.

Hydrogen cell efficiency in transportation

For the moment, hydrogen cells are not being used on a full scale in the automotive industry. The first ever commercial vehicle to run solely on hydrogen is the 2015 Toyota Mirai. It runs solely using hydrogen cells and exhausts drinkable water.

Of course, all hydrogen based cars use electric motors to generate thrust. There are various advantages of an electric engine compared to a standard fossil fuel unit:

  • Higher efficiency (60% electric vs 35% gasoline/diesel)
  • Instant torque over a wide RPM range
  • Removes the need for a geared transmission
  • Low maintenance costs (fewer elements requiring replacement)
  • Less noise

Hybridization – path to cleaner air and cheaper transportation?

It is pretty obvious that hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are better from almost any point when compared to traditional fossil fuel cars. They indeed allow for a cleaner air especially within cities where the exhaust fog is a serious issue in the last decade. Exhausting just water is a main plus when working in this direction.

It also needs to be mentioned that current fuel cell vehicles can achieve ranges of around 400 miles before needing to be recharged. And, compared to electric vehicles that rely on batteries to work, filling a tank of hydrogen takes just as much as it takes to fill one with gasoline. However, Tesla CEO Elon Musk considers hydrogen cars as being silly. What could be the reason?

First of all, it is true that creating electricity from hydrogen takes a lot more in account than simply delivering it to a set of batteries. With hydrogen, atoms must be separated in protons and electrons, then reunited and then finally exhaust the resulting water. Even more, it is a known fact that fuel cells heat up more than you’d want to. It’s a prime reason why Toyota Mirai is using large air intakes on the front fascia, to dissipate the heat.

Furthermore, when compared to fully electric vehicles, hydrogen cars aren’t all that cheap in terms of fuel. It costs around $40 to fill a tank with hydrogen, lasting for around 350 miles, in case of Honda Clarity. On the other hand, according to Tesla’s calculator, it costs just around $16 to charge your vehicle for 400 miles. Of course, it will take 90 minutes to do that.

Conclusion – Do Hybrid Vehicles present a Viable Future?

Someone has to admit it: Elon Musk’s statement on hydrogen vehicles only last as long as the current hydrogen infrastructure and technology does not advance. However, given the amount of research and development done in the field, hydrogen vehicles may very well become a popular choice along consumers, ensuring breathable air and lower costs.

Cars and Hydrogen

Is this love affair headed for destruction?

There is no doubt that we love our automobiles.  The earliest models ran on either steam or batteries.  Gasoline actually came somewhat later.  Why did we switch?

That happened because there is so much energy stored in gasoline.  We could drive dozens of miles without having to recharge our batteries or stop to stoke the fire and find more water to make more steam.

Of course it was fantastic to have cars whether they were steam, gasoline, or electric.  If you could find a suitable place to get up to speed you could go faster than a horse, and do it continuously, long after a horse would have had to reduce its speed due to exhaustion.

Gasoline just made it more convenient and even more durable.  Steam and batteries faded into history.

What goes around…

Now we have finally come full circle, haven’t we?  We’re back to electric cars because we’ve created new batteries with large energy densities so that you can drive hundreds of kilometres or miles before you have to find some place to plug in and recharge.  The new 100 kW battery pack in the Tesla X P100D will manage 483 kilometres/300 miles on a single charge and manage 0-100 k/h (0-60 mph) in 2.9 seconds.

In many cases we could simply change the battery out and replace it with a fuel cell.  Fuel cell systems are smaller and lighter than the heavy membrane-type batteries currently in use.

Of course battery-powered vehicles won’t be replaced by vehicles with fuel cells.  The convenience of a battery powered vehicle for people with short commutes is undeniable.  They’re clean, green, quiet, and cheap to charge.  And right now a kilogram of hydrogen (in this early testing stage) is selling for about US$10 per kilogram (2.2 lbs).  The price will come down as our hydrogen infrastructure improves so that it is more comparable with the price of gasoline.

In terms of energy density, a 4 kilogram tank of hydrogen (the normal size for a car) will provide about 500 kilometres (280 miles) of driving, so that would cost you US$40.  It can be refilled in just 3–5 minutes, about the same amount of time as filling a car with gasoline.

So now it is fast, comparably priced, and provides a good range for a vehicle…what’s left?  Oh yes… the Hindenburg…

Safety

hindenburgThe lighter-than-air craft Hindenburg comes up in almost every conversation about hydrogen.  People like to point to the 1937 disaster as an example of how dangerous hydrogen is.  The truth is that probably nobody was burned by the hydrogen.

Burns were traced to the aluminiumised fabric of the outer envelope which supposedly protected the ballonets of hydrogen within, and to the spilt and splashed diesel fuel used to power the engines.  What most people don’t know is that 61 of the 97 passengers survived.

Despite still being 100 metres/300 feet in the air, the (presumed) lightning strike from the thunderstorm that started the fire in the tail section, allowed the rear section to descend to the ground briskly, but not fatally so.  People do not survive a 30-storey drop ordinarily.

The flames quickly flashed the length of the ship as the Hydrogen escaped and burned.  To be burned by the hydrogen a person would have to above the gas cells because hydrogen only goes up, never down.

Is It Safe For Cars?

hydrogen-car-burningActually, there’s more stored energy or explosive power in a car’s tank of gasoline than there is a tank of hydrogen.  More importantly, gasoline splashes, and pools, and volatises (evaporates) whereas Hydrogen goes straight up.

In a study performed by the University of Miami, in 2001, a leak-simulation test was conducted.

As you can see, the gasoline powered car (on the right), was destroyed within a minute.  The hydrogen powered car with a leak (on the left) was left completely unharmed.  It’s just basic physics: gasoline drips, pools, and collects, awaiting its opportunity to expend all of its stored energy.  Hydrogen just wants to escape.

Batteries for electric cars are probably very safe, much like hydrogen.  Still, given the choice, I would rather be in an accident with a hydrogen fuelled car, than either a gasoline or battery type.  Gasoline is obvious, but a shorted-out battery large enough to power a car could melt and fuse releasing a lot more energy.

The Takeaway

There are a lot of reasons to pick the various types of Power Systems for vehicles.  It might be the availability of fuel; how much it cost to move from point A to point B; the environmental impact of your choice; or whether the vehicle has the capability to take you from your point-of-origin to your destination, and then back again, without unnecessary complications about finding fuel.

Within the next few years we will probably phase through from gasoline, to pure electric, and then finally to hydrogen.  Good old hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe, and aren’t you tired of hearing the same old story about “running out”?  Me, too…

External links

National Fuel Cell Research Center

Fueleconomy.gov – page about hydrogen cars

Bilforsikring –  Elbil forsikring

Hydrogen Cars Insurance

Hydrogen: What goes up…goes up

Hydrogen is so light that the Earth’s gravity cannot hold it.  It wanders up to the top of the atmosphere where it escapes like a molecule of steam coming off of boiling water, or where it is simply eroded away by the solar wind.  Hydrogen loves to combine with other things though so there’s plenty of it bound at the molecular level.  Most notably of course it is bound up with oxygen to make water.

Watts up, Doc?

All of the energy we use comes from hydrogen.  Of course, it may have been created using hydrogen millions of years ago and sequestered somewhere (say as fossil fuels, or radioactive elements buried in the soil), but without hydrogen nothing else would exist.

Across Europe incoming solar energy (insolation) ranges between 2.75 and 5.44 kilowatts per square metre, annually.  In North America that range falls between 2.87 and 5.89; in Australia, it runs from 4.17 – 6.46 kw/m².  To put that all into perspective, the amount of energy we receive on our planet in just one hour exceeds the total amount of energy all of humanity uses in one year.

Most of our daily energy comes from the Sun.  It drives our weather system, keeps us warm, powers our waterfalls, solar collectors, wind turbines, and it concentrates its energy in food that we eat and feed to our domestic animals.  Without the only continuously operating hydrogen-powered nuclear fusion reactor within 4.36 light years, everything we know would grind to a complete halt.

Light of my Life

Liquid hydrogen is the lightest liquid.  At -250° C one litre of the substance has a mass of only 67 grams, as compared to water which is 1000 grams per litre (the de facto standard).  Part of the explanation for this is that hydrogen is the only element which can exist without a neutron, essentially halving its mass.

It IS Rocket Science

This is also why it makes such a great rocket fuel.  The U.S. Space Shuttle used hydrogen and oxygen to power its main engines in a ratio of 1:6 by mass, respectively.  The external tank held 106,000 kg of hydrogen and 629,000 kilograms of oxygen.  The difference in volume is almost reversed, with the heavier oxygen being only 553,000 litres, but the lighter hydrogen requiring 1,497,000 litres of space.  Consequently, the exhaust gas of the space shuttle main engines was environmentally friendly steam.

Solid hydrogen is also the lightest solid at only 86 grams per cubic litre.  If we could actually manufacture that much, it would take almost 12 litres of solid hydrogen to attain a mass of one kilogram.  Experiments in 2016 at 325 GPa (gigapascals) produced Phase V hydrogen between diamond anvils, but at that pressure the gap between the anvils was too small to get a conductor inside to see if it conducted electricity and if it was therefore a semimetal.

One GPa is equal to 9,870 Earth atmospheres.  325 GPa would equal 3,207,500 atmospheres.  In one experiment they believe they reached 388 GPa (3,829,560 atmospheres).  They hope to attain ~425 GPa in the next iteration and create a true metal of hydrogen.

It is not certain, of course, but it is theorized that hydrogen can be a true metal, but only at pressures normally found at a planetary core.  Experiments are being undertaken to hopefully find the VI (sixth) phase of hydrogen, which should be metallic.

If they manage to create it, scientists suspect that it will be a superconductor at room temperature, or possibly exist as a superfluid that defies gravity.  If it retains both states of superfluid and superconductor, which scientists have put forward as a possibility, they will have a completely unknown substance with contradictory properties on their hands.  Superconductors conduct, naturally; superfluids are insulators.  What will we get?

It’s Everywhere

Hydrogen is about 11% of everything biological.  Naturally that includes water which accounts for a large percentage of its presence, but it also includes fats, proteins, starches, sugars, or just about any other biological material you can name.

We actually go out of our way to add hydrogen to certain foods.  Rendered fats from meat processing were treated with hydrogen, or hydrogenated.  This turned a liquid fat into a solid and it could be used to make flakey, non-elastic pastry in the form of shortening.

Later, in the mid-20th century, we began hydrogenating perfectly clear vegetable oils, and they had the advantage of not requiring refrigeration, in a time when refrigerators were rare.  The Crisco /Cookeen/Copha generation was born.

Just For Fun

If you want to flummox your friends you can refer to hydrogen by its less common name protium (sometimes specified as 1H), named thusly because it has one proton and no neutron.  In the rare case where hydrogen obtains a neutron, we then call it deuterium (2H), and in an even rarer instance, if it acquires two neutrons, that isotope is called tritium (3H).

Keychain Amusement

Tritium is radioactive to a very small degree, and is often sold as semi-permanent light source to hang on your key chain.  Its specific radioactivity is so low that the glass vial that contains the tritium is more than adequate to shield the radiation.  It does make it easier to find your keys in the dark though, and the light in the vial is likely to last for a decade or more (tritium has half-life of more than 12 years) before it starts to fade.

No Small Matter

The only antimatter we have ever created was made at CERN, home of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), and it was anti-hydrogen.  We could make that because all it requires is an antiproton and a positron, which are reasonably easy to come by in a particle accelerator (albeit somewhat expensive to make).  The reasonably small sample was maintained for 17 minutes.

Quite Illuminating

Before we had electric street lamps, night time illumination was most often provided by burning hydrogen gas.  There were alternatives, of course, such as carbon monoxide, acetylene, methane, natural gas, and coal gas, but hydrogen was relatively easy to produce.

The Takeaway

Don’t worry about running out of hydrogen.  We have a lifetime supply right here on our planet.  When it floats up to the sky it doesn’t necessarily escape.  Molecular hydrogen, H2, on its way through the ozone layer, often encounters monatomic oxygen, and joins with it, creating a heavy molecule of water that eventually makes its way back down to Earth.

Just 5 kg of hydrogen will let you cover more than 500 kilometres/300 miles in a full size car.  Hydrogen is currently selling at $10 per kilogram but as the infrastructure builds up, that is expected to drop.

Household fuel cells are available from a limited number of respectable manufacturers now.  They all have their good and bad points.  Some will only run on purified hydrogen; some will not operate below freezing temperatures; some fuel cells can operate on a combination of methanol and water which is far easier to acquire them pure hydrogen.  Others can run on propane or natural gas if you add a chemical reformer to the system.

Check out the options before you jump on board, and remember the technology is always changing.  Someone might invent a system that is just perfect for you, if it doesn’t exist already.  Keep aware of developments and one day soon you can be a 100% green energy user.

The Power of Hydrogen

You don’t need a Ph.D. to understand pH
Everybody who studied high school chemistry knows that pH stands for “Power of Hydrogen”.  What they may not know is that the actual notation was created by Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen away back in the year 1909.  His original notation included the lowercase “p” and the upper case “H”, but the second letter was written as a subscript so it looked like this: pH

moleNowadays of course we all use the standard notation pH, so that we make consistent references and avoid confusion.  So, what are we discussing when the pH symbol is bandied about?

The power of hydrogen describes the level of hydrogen activity in a process.  Normally, in a sample solution, when performing a direct measurement, we would use electrodes that are designed to be sensitive to the concentration and activity of hydrogen ions.

ernst-equation

 

 

 

At this point I could explain what a mole is, or maybe attempt to help you fathom an Ernst equation, but there is a much simpler way to avoid both of them.

Litmus Paper & pH Test Strips

At the very beginning of the 14th century (1300 C.E.), a Spanish doctor named Arnau de Vilanova discovered that the pigments called litmus, which could be extracted from certain lichens, when put into solution, would detect changes in acidity and alkalinity.  When absorbent paper was exposed to the solution and then dried, small pieces could be dipped in a test solution to determine its state.

He apparently possessed a brilliant mind, and an excellent reputation as a doctor.  Among his clientele were three Popes, three Kings, and many rich elite whom he cured of seemingly intractable illnesses.

What are we testing exactly?

Chemical solutions have basic or acidic properties determined by their ability to take up or donate a hydrogen ion, respectively.  When hydrogen loses its electron, it has a net positive-charge; that means, quite literally, that it is a naked proton, and it really seeks to join with something in order to get back into a stable state.

When we use a pH test strip we are measuring the ability of the test substance to exchange a proton, and which direction that proton goes.  The speed of the reaction in the test strip determines the strength of the acidity or alkalinity.  Robust reactions will take place at the extreme ends of the scale, closer to 1 or 14.  Less powerful reactions will be closer to 7 (neutral).

Testing…Testing…1…2…3

If you need to test a gas (e.g. ammonia vapour [NH3], which happens to be alkaline) simply wet the litmus paper with plain water and expose it to the gas.  The gas will dissolve into the water and then react with the litmus providing the colour change.

The pH scale is considered neutral, as with distilled water, with a value of 7.0; it is acidic at 6.9 or less and alkaline at 7.1 or more.  The scale is logarithmic, meaning that an alkaline solution that measures 8.0 is only 1/10th as strong as one that measures 9.0, which is only 1/10th as strong as one that measures 10.0, etc.  The same is true about acids, such that a reading of 5.0 is ten times stronger than 6.0, and 4.0 is ten times the strength of 5.0.

In the early days of chemistry (when it was still called alchemy), actual values were not known; if you knew which state it was, nothing more was required.

Very strong bases can surpass the supposed “top” of the pH scale at 14.0.  Strong acids can also pass into negative numbers instead of stopping at 1.0.  The numbers 1–14 are simply a convention—just because a measuring ruler has a fixed length doesn’t mean that nothing longer than the ruler exists.

Litmus comes in two colours, red and blue.  Red litmus can be used to detect alkalinity (base), and blue can detect acidity.  By combining them you can create a neutral purple litmus paper that can detect both states but only up to 8.3 for bases and down to 4.5 for acids.  Stronger bases and acids provoke no additional colour change.

Modern times

Nowadays, of course, we demand and need much greater accuracy for measuring both chemical states.  By using different reagents we can achieve much more precise readings with these paper strips rather than resorting to ultra-sensitive, electrode-based physical measurements.

A brew master creating a wort from which to make beer wants to know if it has become alkaline.  S/he can then add citric acid to bring it back to a neutral state.  Paper strips are faster and easier than collecting a sample, taking it to a laboratory, and consuming time during which the wrong chemistry might kill your enzymes or your yeast.

  • Bromothymol blue turns yellow/blue for values between 6.0–7.6;
  • Methyl orange shows red below 3.1, and yellow above 4.4;
  • Methyl red responds (red to yellow) between 4.4 and 6.2 ;
  • Methyl yellow (red/yellow) responds between 2.9 and 4.0;
  • Nitrazine (yellow/blue) changes between 4.5 and 7.5;
  • Phenolphthalein turns bright pink at values greater than 8.3, and it is otherwise uncoloured;
  • Universal indicator is made with multiple components so that it can indicate over the entire traditional range of 1–14 (albeit with somewhat reduced accuracy)

ph-indicator-chartThis chart gives an idea of chromatic responsiveness of several reagents.  Of course there are others that are not included here.  The centre strip that is half red and half purple shows the original litmus responsiveness in comparison to the greater accuracy of 11 other types.

So…what are you doing after class?  Want to exchange protons?